pollinated hybrid

Before discussing the various pollination , it never hurts to know what it is pollinated . Pollination ( pollinatio ) is the fall of pollen on the stigma ( for a closed group seed plants ) or fall pollen directly on the ovule ( for the naked seed plants ) . Pollination synonymous with fertilization . Pembuhan is the marriage ( being the union or pelemburan ) egg cells contained in the biological institute in the ovule with a core derived from pollen .

Based on the origin of pollen that fell on the stigma , pollination can be divided into several types, namely :
a. self-pollinating
Self-pollination is often called autogamy if pollen falls on the stigma comes from the flower itself .

b . pollination neighbors
Neighbor pollination or geitonogamy is often called pollination occurs when pollen falls on the stigma of another flower comes from the same plant .

c . cross pollination
Cross-pollination ( allogamy , xenogamy ) is pollination occurs when pollen falls into the stigma comes from the flowers of other plants , but still belong to the same type .

d . pollination hybrid
Hybrid or hybridogamy pollination is pollination occurs when pollen falls on the stigma comes from another flower on a different plant species, or at least have a different nature .

Well that's 4 kinds of pollination by native pollen falling on the stigma .

Spermatophyta

Plant the seeds of Spermatophyta (Greek, seed = seed, Phyton = plant) is a group of plants that items, namely the body in the form of seeds. Seed is part of the ovule and stopped at a new candidate each item, namely the institution. The Institute will take place after fertilization or pollination followed by characteristics of the seed body characteristics, including size, shape, structure, and function of the body.
The size and shape of the plant seeds macroscopic body size vary in height. The highest seed plant tree with a height of over 100 m. Sequoiadendron giganteum d konifeerbome of Yosemite National Park, California, with the benefits of 115 m height and a diameter of about 14 m. Habit or stature various plant seeds, trees, such as wood, Duku, coconut, banyan, fir, Perduk, such as roses, peacock flower, hibiscus, shrubs, herbs and fruit strawberries, lilies and purslane flowers.
Structure and function ...

Plant seeds heterospora . Plant seeds and set up a structure megasporangia mikrosporangia collected in a short sumbuh . For example , structures such as cone or strobilus on conifers and flowers on the flowering plants . As in other plants , spores of seed plants produced by meiosis in sporangia . But in plant seeds , megaspores is not removed , but retained . Megasporangia the development of the female gametophyte support and food and water supply . Female gametophyte in the sporangium remain matures and sporofit memlihara next generation after fertilization . In mikrosporangium , meiosis micro product . Micro tracks sporofit reach the formation of the pollen that grow in the direction toward the ovule the female gametophyte to fertilize germinate . In seed plants , the term micro is the pollen, a pollen sac mikrosporangium and mikrosporofil is benangsari . The term is a biological Institute megaspore ( embryo sac ) , megasporangium an ovule and megasporofil a carpels ( karpela ) .Way of life and reproductive habitat

Pollination

Pollination can occur with different intermediaries:
a. Broker-called anemogami wind, can occur when the grain powder is very light, small and dry.
Example: on the pine, resin, grass.
b. Broker-called hidrogami water.
Example: on the water plant.
c. Broker-called zoogami animals.


* If an insect called entomogami
* Bird called ornitogami
* Snail called malakogami
* Bats called kiroptorogami

d. Human intermediaries called antropogami.
Example: pollination vanilli in Indonesia.

According to the origin of pollen, pollination can be divided into 4:
a. Autogami (self-pollinating)
Pollen from one flower the same. If there is not yet blooming flowers at the time called kleistogami.
b. Geitonogami (neighbor pollination)
When pollen from other flowers that are in one tree (one individual).
c. Alogami (cross pollination)
When pollen from the flowers of other trees are still one species.


Sometimes there is a failure of pollination and in some plant species are not possible autogami. The reason is as follows:
a. Dikogami: When the cook pistil and pollen does not coincide, and this is because:

* 1. Ripe pollen precedence over putiknya .... (Protandri). Example: celery, onion, corn
* 2. Pistils ripe pollen precedence over .... (Protogini).

b. Didesious: When in one species, male and female genitalia separate
Example: The bark and melinjo (Gnetum Arremon)






c. Heterostili: If the length of the stalk stalk stamen and pistil are not the same and different.
Examples: coffee, quinine and glass plates.
d. Herkogami: If the form does not allow flower pollen falls into the stigma.
Example: vanilla





Pollination and Fertilization Process
Grain dust / pollen on the stigma attached Þ Þ reed powder form (2 core, core nucleus of vegetative and generative) walking toward the micropyle (the door of the biological institute) generative nucleus divides Þ Þ Þ 2 core sperm to the micropyle, dead vegetative nucleus Þ one sperm to fertilize the egg nucleus Þ embryo. The other sperm nucleus fertilize the biological core Þ institutions endosperm (food reserves for the embryo).

Since conception, the conception took place twice at Angiospermae called double fertilization.

Embryos in certain seed plants can be formed for several reasons. namely:


1. Through the fusion of sperm and ovum (amfimiksis)
2. Not through the fusion of sperm and ovum (apomiksis), which can be divided into:
a. Apogami: embryo formed from the biological institute. For example: from sinergid and antipode.
b.Partenogenesis: embryo formed from cells that are not fertilized eggs.
c. Adventitious embryo: an embryo formed from cells nuselus, namely the addition to the biological institute.




Apomiksis and amfimiksis can occur simultaneously, will be formed more than one embryo in a seed, called poliembrioni. This event is often found in jackfruit, citrus and mango.


(taken from gurungeblog.wordpress.com)

Pollination by Animals

In general, pollination by insects and other animals are more efficient than pollination by wind. Typically, pollination benefits the animal pollinator to provide him with nectar, and the benefits the plant by direct transfer pollen from one plant to the pistil of another plant. Angiosperm flowers are often highly adapted to pollination by insects and other animals.

Each taxonomic group of animals related pollinating flowers typically have certain characteristics. Therefore, one can often determine which animal species pollinates a certain flower studying the morphology, color, and smell the flowers. For example, some pure red flowers, red or almost pure, and very little odor. Birds serve, like hummingbirds as pollinators of most of the flowers, since birds have excellent vision in the red region of the spectrum, and relatively undeveloped sense of smell. Interestingly enough, Europe has no native pure red flowers and any bird pollinated flowers.

Some flowers smell very strong, but they are very dark color. The flowers are often pollinated by bats, which have very poor vision, are often active during the night, and who understand very well developed odor.

The flowers of many species of plants are marked with special ultraviolet absorbing pigments (flavonoids), which appear to direct the pollinator toward the pollen and nectar.

The pigments are invisible to humans and most animals, but bees' eyes have special ultraviolet photoreceptors that allow the bees to detect patterns and so pollinate the flowers.

( from various sources )

How can plants attract pollinators?

How can plants attract pollinators?

Cycads found in central Australia rely on thrips for pollination. The thrips are attracted by the scent, which then use to manage insects for male and female cones. Photo: M Bulbert © Australian Museum.

Just provide nectar can not guarantee that insects will come to a facility or transferring pollen to pollen recipients of the same species. For this reason, plants use visual and olfactory cues to attract and direct insects.

The scent is an effective way to attract pollinators. For example, strongly scented flowers tend to be visited by beetles and flies, while bees and butterflies visit fragrant flowers. It is also an effective way to manage pollinators to the pollen receivers.

Cycads from Australia internal use scent to lure thrips for pollination. Thrips are very small insects that can not carry much pollen grains, so the plant needs to attract a large number of them. A male Cycad cone laden with pollen will send a strong and pungent scent that will attract as many as 50 000 thrips. Female cones also emit an odor when they are ready to receive pollen, which then attracts the pollen-laden thrips.

Scent can also be used to fool the insects to be pollinators. The Corpse Flower of Indonesia uses a pungent smell of rotting meat to attract insects Carrión. The Australian Broad-lipped Orchid mimic the smell and also the emergence of a female Thynine wasps. This idiots male wasps in trying to mate with the flower that is pollinated in the process. www.bugwise.net.au

How does flower shape affect pollinators?

How does flower shape affect pollinators?

A bee using its long tongue (Silhouette through the side of the flower) to access the nectar at the base of a flower with a long tubular head. Photo: © M Batley.

Flower form can restrict access to pollen and nectar for only the insects that have the right tools or skills. For example, the nectar at the bottom of a long tubular flower can only be accessed by insects, which have long mouthparts, such as butterflies, moths, flies and bees, which have long-lapping 'tongues'.

The flower shape can be so limiting, to a certain type of behavior may be required for access to pollen. For example, "Buzz pollination" is needed to pollinate many Hibberta species. It is practiced by the blue striped Bee and a number of native Australian carpenter bees, and includes bee farm on the site and vibrating the pollen out.

The relationship between flower shape and location of nectar is also used by plants to attract certain insects. Many legumes (eg Luzern), has hidden nectar, which can be opened only by big, strong bees like Leaf Cutter or Resin Bees. The flowers of these plants are closed. It is only by pushing down on the lower parts of the flower that opens up to allow access to the nectar. As spring flower pollen is flung open to taking body of bees. www.bugwise.net.au

Pollination of nectar feeders

Pollination of nectar feeders

A bee is based on hidden anthers as the lives of nectar. Photo: © D Nelson.

Most of flowering plants to encourage insects to visit their flowers at a secret sugar-rich liquid called nectar. This nectar collects in pools, which is below the sexual organs of the plant. As insects into the flower in search of nectar, it brushes against the anthers (pollen-bearing male parts of the flower). In doing so the insect collecting pollen when it sticks to her body. When the insect visits another flower for more nectar, the pollen is moved from his body to Stamford (pollen receiving female parts of the flower), causing pollination.

Pollination of a nectar feeder has a range of potential benefits, including:

• The location of nectar ensure insect can not avoid touching the bodies associated with pollination.
• Pure nectar feeders such as butterflies and moths do not eat pollen.

www.bugwise.net.au

How can insects pollinate plants?

How can insects pollinate plants?
Pollination of pollen-feeder

A beetle collect pollen on her body as it feeds. Photo: © D Nelson.

Many insects eat pollen. In the process of eating becomes the subject of it. Pollination occurs when the pollen feeder transfer pollen to pollen recipients of the same plant or another plant of the same nature as insect look for more pollen to eat.

Drawbacks of attracting a pollen feeder:

• Eating too much postal facility want delivered - pollen.
• They tend to be general feeders and eat other parts of the plant, including sexual organs.
• They can be regarded as' unreliable pollinators' as a pollinator can not go anywhere near the female organs of the same species of plant.

www.bugwise.net.au

Why is pollination by insects important

A fly resting on the anthers as it uses the sponge-like mouthparts to absorb the nectar. Photo: © O Batley.
Why is pollination by insects important for the environment and us?

1. Pollination by insects is a much more reliable and effective pollination mechanism than the chance of spreading.
2. Pollination by insects provides plant community structures.
3. Pollination by insects is particularly important for Australian native trees and shrubs. For example, native bees pollinate many members of plant families Myrtaceae. This family includes eucalypts, angophoras and tea trees.
4. Pollination by insects are essential for crop production. A third of the human food supply are crops that are dependent on pollination by bees.

What insects are pollinators?

Species of bees, beetles, flies, wasps, thrips, butterflies and moths are all successful pollinators.

These insects make good pollinators, because they share two important features:

* The flies, and are therefore able to visit many plants in a relatively short time,
* They are motivated to interact with pollen as they either eat it or food adjacent (eg nectar).

The most sophisticated relationship between plants and insects are generally those involving bees. The bees collect pollen and nectar, not only for itself but also to feed their young. For this reason, bees have developed a number of adaptations that make them particularly good pollen carriers. Bees have special hairs, which are designed to provide pollen 'curve' on their hindlegs and the underside of their abdomen. These adjustments will allow them to collect and transport large quantities of pollen. Bees are ideal pollinators because they visit many flowers, while carrying lots of pollen, before returning to their nest. So the chance that a bee will transfer pollen between flowers of the same species is very high.

Pollination by insect

What is pollination?

A leaf cutter bee manages to cover itself in pollen. Photo: © D Nelson.

Pollen is made of the male organs of a plant (anthers of flowers) and contains the genetic information necessary for plant reproduction. Pollination is the supply of pollen to the female organs of a plant (the parent of flowers).

Pollen can be transferred to the female organs at the same plant (self-pollination) or a second plant of the same species (cross-pollination). As a result of the pollination of plants produce seeds. Pollen can be spread by wind, water and animal pollinators such as insects, bats and birds.

How important is insect pollination?

It is estimated that 65% of all flowering plants and some seed plants (eg Cycads and Pines) require insects for pollination. This percentage is even greater for economically important crops that give fruits, vegetables, textile fiber and related products. Because the insects are as effective pollinators, plants have developed many ways to encourage them to visit. This has led to some strong associations between plants and insects. www.bugwise.net.au

Pollination of plants by insects

by Rudy SCHEIBNER,
Extension Entomologist

Pollination is a process by which plants receive pollen from other plants of the same species, so they can reproduce by forming seeds. Some plants are pollinated by the wind, and some are pollinated by insects or other small animals. When the plants are pollinated by insects, it looks like some kind of agreement was reached, after which the facility will provide insect with anything, if insect will pollinate the plant flowers in return. Although the plant and the insect can take advantage because of their connection to each other, the insect visits a flower usually not targeted pollinate the flower.

Honey Bees are very important insect pollinators. Most of the time, both honey bees and the plants they visit, is beneficial. The honey bee get some food and equipment get pollinated. When a honey bees collect pollen from the anthers (male reproductive part) of a flower, it brings the pollen in special pollen baskets on its hind legs. All that pollen will be taken back to the hive of bees' use. The honey bees is a messy producer of food, and some pollen gets stuck on the hairs of her body. When bien visit the next flower, some of the pollen brushes off the flower, and if it sticks to the stigma (female part) of the flower, pollination will take place. Bien does not make any effort to put the pollen in the right place.

Bees also collect pollen from corn, grain but gets nothing in return. Corn is pollinated by the wind. When honey bees try to get nectar from a flower alfalfa, the flower has a tripping device, which merges the bees in the face with one, too (the pollen-bearing part of a flower). It is the flower on the way to ensure that its pollen being attached to an insect to transfer to another flower. Bees do not like being slapped in the face, so they usually find some other kind of plant to get nectar. Some of the bees learn to chew a hole in the side of the flower and get to the nectar through the side door. When they do that pollination occurs not because the pollen on the bees do not reach the top of stigma. So it seems that the only reason for a bee visit a flower is to get what it wants and not to perform a pollination service. Pollination occurs as a happy accident of the flower.

Many other kinds of insects as wasps, flies, beetles, thrips and other types of bees, feeding on nectar or pollen also pollinate flowers by accident. However, there are at least some insects, who deliberately make sure that the flowers they visit get pollinated. The way a Yucca flower is built, it may not be pollinated in the ordinary way, and it depends on the special service of a Yucca moths to do it. When the moths come to a Yucca flower assemble a ball of pollen, and then goes to the ovaries of the female part of the flower, where it includes some eggs. Then rises to the top of the female part of the flower and puts the ball of pollen on the stigma where it is due for pollination to occur.

Now that it is pollinated, the flower can produce seeds in her ovary. The Yucca moth larvae eat some of the seeds, but many are left over to produce new Yucca plant. Because Yucca moth larvae eat only Yucca seed, and Yucca plant is pollinated only by Yucca moths, both moth and the plant will depend on each other for survival. www.uky.edu

( The image from www.landcareresearch.co.nz)

Pollinator Syndrome

Wind and water pollination

Ponderosa pine branch tip shows needles and young cones.

Grass flower

Thumbnail an information sheet published by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, forbidden! Federal Republic of noxious weeds: The Water Park.
Forbidden! Federal Republic of harmful Weeds: The Aquatics (PDF)

Many flowers are pollinated without the help of animals (insects, birds or mammals). Here are a few examples.
Wind pollination

Most conifers and about 12% of the world's flowering plants are wind-pollinated. They include grasses and their cultivated cousins, the cereal crops, many trees; the notorious allergens ragweeds; and others. All release billions of pollen grains in the air, so a lucky few will hit their targets.

Wind-pollinated flowers are typically:

* No bright colors, special smell, or nectar
* Small
* Most have no petals
* Strain and stigma exposed to air currents
* Large amount of pollen
* Pollen smooth, bright, light airborne
* Stigma feathery to catch pollen from the wind
* May have staminate and pistillate flower, can monoecious or dioecious
* Normally, single-seeded fruit, such as oak, grass, birch, poplar, hazelnut, dock, cat-tail, plantain, and Papyrus

Water-pollination

Pollen can also float on the water's surface sliding until it contacts flowers. This is called surface hydrophily and are relatively rare. This water-assisted pollination occurs in waterweeds and pondweeds. In very few cases, pollen travels underwater use.

Many of the water-pollinated plants has become invasive throughout the United States. To learn more, visit these invasive species websites:

* U. S. Forest Service Invasive Species Program
* National Invasive Species Information Center

Photo by T. Barnes, University of
Kentucky.